Articles used to update and expand the research base for Guidelines 3.0 are noted with an asterisk (*).

Atkinson, R. K., & Renkl, A. (2007). Interactive example-based learning environments: Using interactive elements to encourage effective processing of worked examples. Educational Psychology Review, 19(3), 375-386.

Atkinson, R. K., Derry, S. J., Renkl, A., & Wortham, D. (2000). Learning from examples: Instructional principles from the worked examples research. Review of Educational Research, 70(2), 181-214.

Atkinson, R. K., Mayer, R. E., & Merrill, M. M. (2005). Fostering social agency in multimedia learning: Examining the impact of an animated agent’s voice. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 30(1), 117-139.

Atkinson, R. K., Renkl, A., & Merrill, M. M. (2003). Transitioning from studying examples to solving problems:Effects of self-explanation prompts and fading worked-out steps. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 774-783.

Atkinson, R. K. (2002). Optimizing learning from examples using animated pedagogical agents. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(2), 416-427.

Barber, M., Cartledge, G., Council III, M., Konrad, M., Gardner, R., & Telesman, A. O. (2018). The effects of computer-assisted culturally relevant repeated readings on English Learners' fluency and comprehension. Learning Disabilities: A Contemporary Journal, 16(2), 205-229.*

Bui, Y. N., Schumaker, J. B., & Deshler, D. D. (2006). The effects of a strategic writing program for students with and without learning disabilities in inclusive fifth-grade classes. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 21(4), 244-260.

Burke, M. D., Hagan, S. L., & Grossen, B. (1998). What curricular designs and strategies accommodate diverse learners? Teaching Exceptional Children, 31(2), 34-38.

Chen, D., & Hung, D. (2004). Augmentation in learning: Supports which do not fade away. Education Technology, 44(4), 60-63.

Chi, M. T. H., & Bassok, M. (1989). Learning from examples via self-explanation. In L. Resnick (Ed.), Knowing, learning and instruction: Essays in honor of Robert Glaser, (pp. 251-282). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Clark, F. L., Deshler, D. D., Schumaker, J. B., Alley, G. R., & Warner, M. M. (1984). Visual imagery and self-questioning: Strategies to improve comprehension of written material. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 17(3), 145-149.

Clark, R. C., & Mayer, R. E. (2004). E-learning and the science of instruction: Proven guidelines for consumers and designers of multimedia learning (2nd ed.). San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Collins, A., Brown, J. S., & Newman, S. E. (1989). Cognitive apprenticeship: Teaching the crafts of reading, writing, and mathematics. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.), Knowing, learning, and instruction: Essays in honor of Robert Glaser.Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Cooper, S., Hebert, M., Goodrich, J. M., Leiva, S., Lin, X., Peng, P., & Nelson, J. R. (2024). Effects of automaticity training on reading performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Behavioral Education, 33(1), 23-52.*

Corey, R. (1995). Words from music: How Mozart and Mangione inspire writers. Quarterly of the National Writing Project and the Center for the Study of Writing and Literacy, 17(3), 26-29.

Craig, S. D., Gholson, B., & Driscoll, D. M. (2002). Animated pedagogical agents in multimedia educational environments: Effects of agent properties, picture features, and redundancy. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(2), 428-434.

Craig, S. D., Graesser, A. C., Sullins, J., & Gholson, B. (2004). Affect and learning: An exploratory look into the role of affect in learning with AutoTutor. Journal of Educational Media, 29(3), 241-250.

Dalton, B., & Proctor, C. P. (2007). Reading as thinking: Integrating strategy instruction in a universally designed digital literacy environment. In D.S. McNamara (Ed.), Reading Comprehension Strategies: Theories, Interventions, and Technologies, (pp. 421-439). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc..

Dalton, B., & Strangman, N. (2006). Improving struggling readers’ comprehension through scaffolded hypertexts and other computer-based literacy programs. In M. C. McKenna, L.D. Labbo, R.D. Kieffer & D. Reinking (Ed.), International handbook of literacy and technology volume II (pp. 75-92). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

Dalton, B., Pisha, B., Eagleton, M., Coyne, P., & Deysher, S. (2002). Engaging the text: Final report to the U.S. department of education. Peabody: CAST.

Dalton, B. D., Herbert, M., & Deysher, S. (2003, December). Scaffolding students’ response to digital literature with embedded strategy supports: The role of audio-recording vs. writing student response options. Presented at the 53rd Annual Meeting of the National Reading Conference, Scottsdale, AZ.

Danoff, B. (1993). Incorporating strategy instruction within the writing process in the regular classroom: Effects on the writing of students with and without learning disabilities. Journal of Reading Behavior, 25(3), 295-322.

De La Paz, S., Butler, C., Levin, D. M., & Felton, M. K. (2024). Effects of a cognitive apprenticeship on transfer of argumentative writing in middle school science. Learning Disability Quarterly, 47(2), 70-83.*

Deshler, D. D., & Schumaker, J. B. (1989). An instructional model for teaching students how to learn. In J. L. Graden, J. E. Zins & M. J. Curtis (Eds.), Alternative educational delivery systems: Enhancing instructional outcomes for all students (pp. 391-411). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.

Doering, A., & Veletsianos, G. (2007). Multi-scaffolding environment: An analysis of scaffolding and its impact on cognitive load and problem-solving ability. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 37(2), 107-129.

Dole, J. A., Brown, K. J., & Trathen, W. (1996). The effects of strategy instruction on the comprehension performance of at-risk students. Reading Research Quarterly, 31(1), 62-77.

Duffy, G. G. (2002). The case for direct explanation of strategies. In C. C. Block & M. Pressley (Eds.), Comprehension instruction (pp. 28–41). New York: Guilford.

Dunsworth, Q., & Atkinson, R. K. (2007). Fostering multimedia learning of science: Exploring the role of an animated agent’s image. Computers & Education, 49(3), 677-690.

Dyck, N., & Sunbye, N. (1988). The effects of text explicitness on story understanding and recall by learning disabled children. LD Research, 3(2), 68-77.

Easterbrooks, S. R., & Stoner, M. (2006). Using a visual tool to increase adjectives in the written language of students who are deaf or hard of hearing. Communication Disorders Quarterly, 27(2), 95-109.

Ellis, E. S., Deshler, D. D., & Schumaker, J. B. (1989). Teaching adolescents with learning disabilities to generate and use task-specific strategies. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 22(2), 108-119.

Englert, C. S., Yong, Z., Dunsmore, K., Collings, N. Y., & Wolbers, K. (2007). Scaffolding the writing of students with disabilities through procedural facilitation: Using an internet-based technology to improve performance.Learning Disability Quarterly, 30(1), 9-29.

Etheris, A. I. (2004). Computer-supported collaborative problem solving and anchored instruction in a mathematics classroom: An exploratory study. International Journal of Learning Technology, 1(1), 16-39.

Evans, C. M. (2023). Applying a culturally responsive pedagogical framework to design and evaluate classroom performance-based assessments in Hawai ‘i. Applied Measurement in Education, 36(3), 269-285.*

Fisher, D., & Frey, N. (2003). Writing instruction for struggling adolescent readers: A gradual release model.Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 46(5), 396-407.

Fisher, D., & Frey, N. (2007). Scaffolded writing: A gradual release approach to writing instruction. New York:Scholastic.

Fisher, J. B., Schumaker, J. B., & Deshler, D. D. (1995). Searching for validated inclusive practices: A review of the literature. Focus on Exceptional Children, 28(4), 1-20.

Gallego, M. A., Duran, G. Z., & Scanlon, D. J. (1989). Interactive teaching and learning: Facilitating learning disabled students' transition from novice to expert. Literacy Theory and Research, 311-319.

Gambrell, L. B., & Bales, R. (1986). Mental imagery and the comprehension-monitoring performance of fourth and fifth grade poor readers. Reading Research Quarterly, 21(4), 454-464.

Gartner, A., & Lipsky, D. K. (1987). Beyond special education: Toward a quality system for all students. Harvard Educational Review, 57(4), 367-396.*

Gaytan, J. (2006). Type II applications: Using on-demand help features effectively in interactive learning environments: A literature review. Computers in the Schools, 23(1), 163-172.

Gersten, R. (1998). Recent advances in instructional research for students with learning disabilities: An overview.Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 13(3), 162-170.

Geven, S., Wiborg, Ø. N., Fish, R. E., & van de Werfhorst, H. G. (2021). How teachers form educational expectations for students: A comparative factorial survey experiment in three institutional contexts. Social Science Research, 100, 102599.*

Gillette, Y. (2001). Pictures to print: A software scaffold to written literacy. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 16(5), 484-497.

González, J., Melgoza, E., Cabeza, L., & Okoye, K. (2024). Assessment of students’ learning outcome and competency through a blend of knowledge and practical ability. International Journal of Instruction, 17(2), 561-582.*

Graesser, A. C., McNamara, D. S., & VanLehn, K. (2005). Scaffolding deep comprehension strategies through Point&Query, AutoTutor, and iSTART. Educational Psychologist, 40(4), 225-234.

Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007). A meta-analysis of writing instruction for adolescent students. Journal Educational Psychology, 99(3), 445-476.

Hammond, Z. (2014). Culturally responsive teaching and the brain: Promoting authentic engagement and rigor among culturally and linguistically diverse students. Corwin Press.*

Hehir, T. (2002). Eliminating ableism in education. Harvard Educational Review, 72(1), 1-32.*

Henning, G., & Lundquist, A. E. (2022). Using assessment to advance equity. New Directions for Student Services, 2022(178-179), 185-194.

Higgins, K., Boone, R., & Lovitt, T. (1996). Hypertext support for remedial students and students with disabilities.Journal of Learning Disabilities, 29(4), 402-412.

Horton, S., Lovitt, T., & Christensen, S. (1991). Notetaking from textbooks: Effects of a columnar format on three categories of secondary students. Exceptionality: A Research Journal, 2(1), 18-40.

Hudson, P., Lignugaris-Kraft, B., & Miller, T. (1993). Using content enhancements to improve the performance of adolescents with learning disabilities in content classes. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 8(2), 106-126.

Idol-Maestas, L. (1985). Getting ready to read: Guided probing for poor comprehenders. Learning Disability Quarterly, 8, 243-254.

Isaacson, S., & Gleason, M. M. (1997). Mechanical obstacles to writing: What can teachers do to help students with learning problems? Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 12(3), 188-194.

Jacobson, M. J. (2008). A design framework for educational hypermedia systems: Theory, research, and learning emerging scientific perspectives. Educational Technology Research and Development, 56(1), 5-28.

Jones, B. F. (1986). Quality and equality through cognitive instruction. Educational Leadership, 43(7), 4-11.

Kalinec-Craig, C. A. (2017). The rights of the learner: A framework for promoting equity through formative assessment in mathematics education. Democracy and Education, 25(2), 5.*

Kameenui, E. J., & Carnine, D. W. (1998). Effective teaching strategies that accommodate diverse learners. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.

Kameenui, E. J., & Simmons, D. C. (1990). Designing instructional strategies: The prevention of academic learning problems. Columbus, OH: Merrill Publishing Co.

Kim, Y., & Baylor, A. L. (2006). A social-cognitive framework for pedagogical agents as learning companions.Educational Technology Research and Development, 54(6), 569-596.

Kliewer, C., & Fitzgerald, L. M. (2001). Disability, Schooling, and the Artifacts of Colonialism. Teachers College Record, 103(3), 450-70.*

Kliewer, C., Biklen, D., & Petersen, A. (2015). At the end of intellectual disability. Harvard Educational Review, 85(1), 1-28.*

Koedinger, K. R., & Aleven, V. (2007). Exploring the assistance dilemma in experiments with cognitive tutors.Educational Psychology Review, 19(3), 239-264.

Lee, J. C. (2022). Towards an antiracist classroom formative assessment framework. Educational Assessment, 27(2), 179-186.*

Leggett, J. M. (2023). Toward the co-construction of assessment: Equity, language ideology and culturally sustaining pedagogy at the community college. Currents in Teaching & Learning, 15(1).*

Lenz, B. K., Ehren, B. J., & Deshler, D. D. (2005). The content literacy continuum: A school reform framework for improving adolescent literacy for all students. Teaching Exceptional Children, 37(6), 60-63.

Liu, M., & Bera, S. (2005). An analysis of cognitive tool use patterns in a hypermedia learning environment.Educational Technology Research and Development, 53(1), 5-21.

Lusk, M. M., & Atkinson, R. K. (2007). Animated pedagogical agents: Does their degree of embodiment impact learning from static or animated worked examples? Applied Cognitive Psychology, 21(6), 747-764.

MacArthur, C. A., & Haynes, J. B. (1995). Student assistant for learning from text(SALT): A hypermedia reading aid. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 28(3), 150-159.

Malakowsky, D. (2023). A modified extensive reading and repeated reading intervention with adult ESL students. Reading in a Foreign Language, 35(1), 72-99.*

Mcclearycale Fine, C. G., Littich, H., & Getz, M. (2023). The (trans) formative assessment planning template: Explicitly welcome translanguaging during formative assessment in your science classroom. Science Scope, 46(3), 29-37.*

McNamara, D. S., Levinstein, I. B., & Boonthum, C. (2004). iSTART: Interactive strategy training for active reading and thinking. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36(2), 222-233.

McNamara, D. S., O'Reilly, T. P., Best, R. M., & Ozuru, Y. (2006). Improving adolescent students' reading comprehension with iSTART. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 34(2), 147-171.

McNeill, K. L., Lizotte, D. J., Krajcik, J., & Marx, R. W. (2006). Supporting students’ construction of scientific explanations by fading scaffolds in instructional materials. Journal of the Sciences, 15(2), 153-181.

McTighe, J., & O’Connor, K. (2005). Seven practices for effective learning. Educational Leadership, 63(3), 10-17.

Mechling, L. (2005). The effect of instructor-created video programs to teach students with disabilities: A literature review. TAM Board Members, 20(2), 25-36.

Moran, J., Ferdig, R. E., Pearson, P. D., Wardrop, J., & Blomeyer Jr, R. L. (2008). Technology and reading performance in the middle-school grades: A meta-analysis with recommendations for policy and practice. Journal of Literacy Research, 40(1), 6-58.

Moreno, R., & Flowerday, T. (2006). Students’ choice of animated pedagogical agents in science learning: A test of the similarity-attraction hypothesis on gender and ethnicity. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 31(2), 186-207.

Moreno, R., Mayer, R. E., Spires, H. A., & Lester, J. C. (2001). The case for social agency in computer-based teaching: Do students learn more deeply when they interact with animated pedagogical agents? Cognition & Instruction, 19(2), 177-213.

Moreno, R., Mayer, R. E., Spires, H. A., & Lester, J. C. (2001). The case for social agency in computer-based teaching: Do students learn more deeply when they interact with animated pedagogical agents? Cognition and Instruction, 19(2), 177-213.

Musti-Rao, S., & Telesman, A. O. (2022). Comparing the effects of two practice conditions on the subtraction fact fluency of fifth-grade students. Journal of Behavioral Education, 31(3), 484-502.*

Nolet, V., & McLaughlin, M. J. (2005). Accessing the general curriculum: Including students with disabilities in standards-based reform. Newbury Park, CA: Corwin Press, Inc.

Orsmond, P., Merry, S., & Reiling, K. (2002). The use of exemplars and formative feedback when using student derived marking criteria in peer and self-assessment. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 27(4), 309-323.

Palincsar, A. S., & Brown, A. L. (1984). Reciprocal teaching of comprehension-fostering and comprehension-monitoring activities. Cognition & Instruction, 1(1), 117-175.

Paricio-Moreau, L. (2024). The Power of Suggest… ed Practice: Using Optional Practice Instead of Assigned Homework in the High School Science Classroom. The Science Teacher, 91(2), 23-26.

Paris, S. G., Wasik, B. A., & Turner, J. C. (1999). The development of strategic readers. In R. Barr, M. Kamil, P. Mosenthal & P. D. Pearson (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (pp. 609-640). White Plains, NY: Longman.

Paris, S. G. (1986). Teaching children to guide their reading and learning. In T. E. Raphael (Ed.), The contexts of school-based literacy (pp. 115-130). New York, NY: Random House.

Peterson, R. (2010). The persistence of low expectations in special education law viewed through the lens of therapeutic jurisprudence. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 33(5), 375-397.*

Piazza, S. V. (2012). Searching for culturally responsive formative reading assessments: Retellings, comprehension questions, and student interviews. Language and Literacy, 14(3), 133-149.*

Pol, H. J., Harskamp, E. G., & Suhre, C. J. M. (2008). The effect of the timing of instructional support in a computer-supported problem-solving program for students in secondary physics education. Computers in Human Behavior, 24(3), 1156-1178.

Prendinger, H., Ma, C., & Ishizuka, M. (2007). Eye movements as indices for the utility of life-like interface agents:A pilot study. Interacting with Computers, 19(2), 281-292.

Quintana, C., Reiser, B. J., Davis, E. A., Krajcik, J., Fretz, E., Duncan, R. G., et al. (2004). A scaffolding design framework for software to support science inquiry. Scaffolding: A Special Issue of the Journal of the Learning Sciences, 13(3), 337-386.

Reinking, D., & Schreiner, R. (1985). The effects of computer mediated text on measures of reading comprehension and reading behavior. Reading Research Quarterly, 20(5), 536-552.

Reiser, B. J. (2004). Scaffolding complex learning: The mechanisms of structuring and problematizing student work. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 13(3), 273-304.

Renkl, A., & Atkinson, R. K. (2003). Structuring the transition from example study to problem solving in cognitive skill acquisition: A cognitive load perspective. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 153-22.

Roehler, L. R., Duffy, G. G., & Meloth, M. S. (1984). What to be direct about in direct instruction in reading:Content-only versus process-into-content. In T. E. Raphael (Ed.), The contexts of school-based literacy (pp. 79-95). New York, NY: Random House.

Rose, D. H. (1995). Apprenticeship and exploration: A new approach to literacy instruction. Scholastic literacy research paper, 6, 1-8.

Rosenshine, B., & & Meister, C. (1994). Reciprocal teaching: A review of the research. Review of Educational Research, 64(4), 479-530.

Rosenshine, B. (1997). Advances in research on instruction. In J. W. Lloyd, E. J. Kameenui & D. Chard (Eds.), Issues in educating students with disabilities (pp. 197-221). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Ryokai, K., Vaucelle, C., & Cassell, J. (2003). Virtual peers as partners in storytelling and literacy learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19(2), 195-208.

Scanlon, D., Deshler, D. D., & Schumaker, J. B. (1996). Can a strategy be taught and learned in secondary inclusive classrooms? Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 11(1), 41-57.

Schumaker, J. B., Denton, P. H., & Deshler, D. D. (1984). The paraphrasing strategy. Lawrence, KS: The University of Kansas.

Schumaker, J. B., Deshler, D. D., Nolan, S. M., & Alley, G. R. (1994). The self-questioning strategy. Lawrence, KS:The University of Kansas.

Schumaker, J. B., Deshler, D. D., Zemitzsch, A., & Warner, M. W. (1993). The visual imagery strategy. Lawrence, KS: The University of Kansas.

Shepard, L. A. (2021). Ambitious teaching and equitable assessment: A vision for prioritizing learning, not testing. American Educator, 45(3), 28.

Singer, H., & Donlan, D. (1982). Problem-solving schema with question generation for comprehension of complex short stories. Reading Research Quarterly, 17(2), 166-86.

Singer-Freeman, K. (2023). The value of promising failures and partial successes: Visible and actionable assessments can support a more equitable learning environment. Planning for Higher Education, 52(1).

Sitko, M. C., Laine, C. J., & Sitko, C. (2005). Writing tools: Technology and strategies for struggling writers. In D. Edyburn, K. Higgins & R. Boone (Eds.), Handbook of special education technology research and practice (pp. 571-598). Whitefish Bay, Wisconsin: Knowledge by Design.

Stevens, R., & Palacio-Cayetano, J. (2003). Design and performance frameworks for constructing problem-solving simulations. Cell Biology Education, 2(3), 162-179.

Swanson, H. L. (2001). Searching for the best model for instructing students with learning disabilities. Focus on Exceptional Children, 34(2), 1-15.

Tarver, S. G. (1996). Direct instruction. In W. Stainback, & S. Stainback (Eds.), Controversial issues confronting special education: Divergent perspectives (2nd ed.). (pp. 143-165). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Thompson, J., Hagenah, S., Kang, H., Stroupe, D., Braaten, M., Colley, C., & Windschitl, M. (2016). Rigor and responsiveness in classroom activity. Teachers College Record, 118(5), 1-58.*

Timmermans, A. C., & Rubie-Davies, C. M. (2018). Do teachers differ in the level of expectations or in the extent to which they differentiate in expectations? Relations between teacher-level expectations, teacher background and beliefs, and subsequent student performance. Educational Research and Evaluation, 24(3-5), 241-263.*

Van Eck, R. (2006). The effect of contextual pedagogical advisement and competition on middle-school students' attitude toward mathematics and mathematics instruction using a computer-based simulation game. Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching, 25(2), 165-195.

Van Merrienboer, J. J. G., Kirschner, P. A., & Kester, L. (2003). Taking the load off a learner's mind: Instructional design for complex learning. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 5-13.

Veletsianos, G. (2007). Cognitive and affective benefits of an animated pedagogical agent: Considering contextual relevance and aesthetics. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 36(4), 373-377.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1964). Thought and language. Annals of Dyslexia, 14(1), 97-98.

Waitoller, F. R., & King Thorius, K. A. (2016). Cross-pollinating culturally sustaining pedagogy and universal design for learning: Toward an inclusive pedagogy that accounts for dis/ability. Harvard Educational Review, 86(3), 366-389.*

Wang, Y., Engler, K. S., & Oetting, T. L. (2014). Expectations lead to performance: The transformative power of high expectations in preschool. Odyssey: New Directions in Deaf Education, 15, 36-39.*

Wilson, R. (1996). The effects of computer-assisted versus teacher-directed instruction on the multiplication performance of elementary students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 29(4), 382-390.

Wood, D., Bruner, J. S., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 17(2), 89-100.

Zhang, W., & Smolen, L. A. (2022). A tiered texts approach for scaffolding reading comprehension for English Learners and struggling readers. International Journal of Curriculum and Instruction, 14(2), 1249-1269.

Zydney, J. M. (2008). Cognitive tools for scaffolding students defining an ill-structured problem. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 38(4), 353-385.